Prospects And Consequences Of A Nuclear Winter Environmental Sciences Essay

The predicted clime ensuing from a Nuclear War is termed Nuclear Winter. Scientists predict the explosion of atomic armories would ensue in colder conditions and decreased sunshine on Earth for old ages. This posting will be limited to explicating the general effects of a Nuclear Winter and how to last them as the badness of a Nuclear Winter is dependent upon the graduated table of the atomic struggle. See Figure 1 for inside informations of atomic armories. Direct Environmental effects: The release of carbon black, aerosols and other particulate affair into the stratosphere as a consequence of the tremendous urban fires caused by atomic arm explosion in metropoliss would ensue in: Ozone depletion: The carbon black would absorb solar radiation and get down chemical procedures which would ensue in the dislocation of ozone. A ice chest clime: As shown in Figure 2, carbon black blocks out sunshine and this has the possible to do an mean temperature dip every bit immense as 7 grades. Lower rainfall: Besides shown in Figure 2, soot emanation consequences in reduced precipitation and hence lower rainfall. This is because vaporization peers precipitation. These effects would be long lasting, as air current and rain procedure do non be in the stratosphere to take the particulate affair. See Figure 3 for the predicted sum of carbon black which would be released from states devastated by a atomic war. Secondary environmental effects: Decreased agricultural production: All life beings are sensitive to alterations in clime, incident sunshine and incident UV radiation. A few specific illustrations of how agribusiness would be affected are shown in Figure 4. Destruction of home grounds and extinction of species Such dramatic clime alteration would pass over out the vegetation of home grounds every bit good as pass overing out the species unable to accommodate to the alterations. What to make in the event of a Nuclear Winter: Protect your whole organic structure ( including the eyes ) from the increased UV exposure: Try to avoid direct exposure, and if you do necessitate to venture out, wear sunblock, a chapeau and dark glassess. Counter the colder temperatures: Wear multiple beds to let motion and sweat excessively dispersed. If you are in an country probably to be threatened by a Nuclear Winter, have exigency heating methods readily available as the usual methods of warming by electricity, gas, etc may non be available. Get a consistent supply of nutrient: Reduced agriculture means less or no nutrient may be available from the usual beginnings. Hence, a pre-cautionary stock of non-perishable nutrient would be necessary and being able to turn your ain nutrient would be greatly good. Decision: A atomic winter would be lay waste toing and there would be small civilisation could make to restrict or mend the environmental effects. In a Nuclear Winter, the clime would go much colder, the ozone bed broken down and there would be small rainfall. Consequently, many home grounds would be destroyed and many species forced into extinction. This would alter our planet for good. Hence, it is indispensable that a big scale atomic war ne'er eventuates. hypertext transfer protocol: //ptonline.aip.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_61/iss_12/37_1.shtml? bypassSSO=1 hypertext transfer protocol: //www.hello2012.com/images/d.jpg hypertext transfer protocol: //ptonline.aip.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_61/iss_12/images/37_1fig1b.jpg Figure 1. Casualties and carbon black. ( a ) Casualties ( human deaths plus hurts ) and ( B ) carbon black generated for several states subjected to 50 detonations of 15-kiloton output or to changing Numberss of 100-kt detonations in a Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty war as described in the text. ( Results for 15-kt detonations adapted from ref. 5. ) hypertext transfer protocol: //ptonline.aip.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_61/iss_12/images/37_1box2fig1.jpg NUCLEAR WINTER REVISITEDA A by Dr. Alan Phillips, October 2000 Those of us who were involved in peace activities in the 80 ‘s likely retrieve a good trade about atomic winter.A Those who have become involved subsequently may hold heard small about it.A No scientific survey has been published since 1990, and really small appears now in the peace or atomic abolishment literature.A *It is still of import. * With 1000s of rocket-launched arms at â€Å" launch-on-warning † , any twenty-four hours there could be an full-scale atomic war by accident.A The fact that there are merely half as many atomic bombs as there were in the 80 ‘s makes no important difference. A Deaths from global famishment after the war would be several times the figure from direct effects of the bombs, and the lasting fraction of the human race might so decrease and disappear after a few coevalss of hungriness and disease, in a radioactive environment. *The construct of Nuclear Winter* Bombs directed at missile silos would split at land degree and throw a immense sum of dust into the ambiance, as the detonation of a vent does.A It is every bit much as a million metric tons from a big atomic bomb spliting at land degree. A Bombs bursting over metropoliss and surface installings, like mills or oil shops and refineries, would do immense fires and fire-storms that would direct immense sums of fume into the air. A The 1980 ‘s research showed that the dust and the fume would barricade out a big fraction of the sunshine and the Sun ‘s heat from the Earth ‘s surface, so it would be dark and cold like an north-polar winter.A It would take months for the sunshine to acquire back to near normal. A The cloud of dust and fume would circle the Northern hemisphere quickly.A Soon it could impact the Torrid Zones, and cold would convey absolute catastrophe for all harvests there.A Quite likely it would traverse the equator and impact the southern hemisphere to a smaller grade. A While the temperature at the surface would be low, the temperature of the upper portion of the troposphere ( 5-11 kilometer ) would lift because of sunshine absorbed by the fume, so there would be an perfectly monolithic temperature inversion.A That would maintain many other merchandises of burning down at the degrees people breathe, doing a smog such as has ne'er been seen before.A PYROTOXINS is a word coined for all the noxious bluess that would be formed by burning of the plastics, gum elastic, crude oil, and other merchandises of civilization.A It is certain that these toxicants would be formed, but we do non hold quantitative estimates.A The sum of combustible stuff is tremendous, and it would bring forth dioxins, furans, PCB ‘s, nitriles, sulfuric and sulfurous acids, oxides of N, C monoxide and C dioxide in sums that would do current concerns about atmospheric pollution seem absolutely fiddling. There would besides be toxic chemicals like ammonium hydroxide and Cl from damaged storage armored combat vehicles. A Another bad environmental thing that would go on is devastation of the ozone layer.A The decrease in the ozone bed could be 50 % – 70 % over the whole Northern hemisphere – really much worse than the current losingss that we are decently concerned about.A Nitrogen oxides are major chemical agents for this.A They are formed by combination of the O and N of the air in any large fire and around atomic detonations, as they are on a smaller graduated table around lightning flashes.A So after the fume cleared and the Sun began to reflect once more, there would be a big addition of UV making the Earth ‘s surface.A This is bad for people in several ways, but do n't worry about the tegument malignant neoplastic diseases? non many of the subsisters would populate long plenty for that to matter.A UV is besides bad for many other populating things, notably plankton, which are the bottom bed of the whole Marine nutrient chain.A There would probably be plenty UV to cause sightlessness in many animals.A Worlds can protect their eyes if they are cognizant of the danger.A Animals do non cognize to make that, and blind animate beings do non survive.A Blind insects do non pollenate flowers, so there is another ground why human harvests and natural nutrient supplies for animate beings would neglect. A Altogether, atomic winter would be an ecological catastrophe of the same kind of magnitude as the major extinctions of species thatA have occurred in the yesteryear, the most celebrated one being 65 million old ages ago at the cretaceous extinction.A Of all the species populating at the clip, about half became extinct.A The theory is that a big meteor made a great crater in the Gulf of California, seting a trillion dozenss of stone dust into the atmosphere.A That is a 1000 times as much stone as is predicted for a atomic war, but the carbon black from fires blocks sunlight more efficaciously than stone debris.A In atomic winter there would besides be radioactive taint giving worldwide background radiation doses many times larger than has of all time happened during the 3 billion old ages of evolution.A The radiation would notably decline things for bing species, though it might, by increasing mutants, let quicker development of new species ( possibly chiefly insects and grasses ) that could digest the post-war conditions.A ( I should merely advert that there is no manner the radiation from a atomic war could destruct â€Å" all life on Earth † .A People must halt stating that.A There will be plentifulness of development after a war, but it may non include us. ) *Governments did non like the thought of Nuclear Winter* The anticipation of atomic winter was published by a group headed by Carl Sagan in 1983.A The initials of their names were T-T-A-P-S, so the paper and their book has become known as â€Å" t-taps † .A It caused some dismay in authorities circles in U.S.A. and NATO states, non so much because this farther catastrophe would follow a atomic war, but because of the hike it gave to the Peace Movement. A A figure of surveies were published in the following few old ages, including major studies by The Swedish Academy of Sciences ( Ambio ) , the International Council of Scientific Unions ( SCOPE ) , and the U.S. National Research Council. A There was a thrust by authorities and the military constitution to minimise the affair, and after a few old ages the media were speaking about â€Å" atomic fall † .A ( The most amazing prevarications were propagated, e.g. that Carl Sagan admitted that his publication was â€Å" a propaganda cozenage † . ) A It was true that islands and coastal countries would hold less terrible temperature beads than the original anticipations, because of the modifying consequence of the ocean.A They would hold violent storms alternatively, because of the large temperature difference between land and H2O. A In 1990 another paper was published by the T-TAPS group reexamining in item the ulterior surveies, and demoing that some alterations to their 1983 paper were necessary.A Some of these were in the way of more terrible alterations, others towards milder changes.A The general image was small changed.A The book: â€Å" A Path Where No Man Thought † by Sagan and Turco ( one of the T ‘s ) , besides published in 1990, gives an history of current decisions for the serious non-specialist reader.A It gives elaborate descriptions of atomic winters of different badness harmonizing to how many arms were used, and against what targets.A If oil refineries and storage were the chief marks, 100 bombs would be adequate to do a atomic winter, and the smallest sizes of atomic bombs would be effectual in get downing the fires. *A new survey needed* Nuclear Winter seems to be a affair that the peace motion has mostly forgotten about, and the general populace has wholly forgotten about. Equally far as I can happen out, no new scientific survey has been published on the affair since 1990.A I feel certain we ought to be reminding the universe of it.A A new scientific survey is certainly warranted by now.A Computer modeling is a chief tool in atmospheric research, and the capacity of computing machines available to university scientists and in authorities research labs has increased really much in the last 10 old ages ; other atmospheric research has non been dormant.A The progresss need to be applied.A If a new survey happened to demo that the wake of atomic war would *not* include terrible alterations in the conditions and clime it would be great intelligence for the atomic arm constitutions, and somewhat good intelligence for those who are working for riddance of atomic arms, but we should transport on merely the same.A If, as seems more likely, the new survey mostly confirmed the T-TAPS consequences it would beef up our place in duologue and supply a focal point for a promotion run to re-awaken the voting populace to the demand to extinguish atomic arms, and the pressing demand to de-alert them. A An of import country where more information is needed is to demo whether spread of the cold is likely to impact the tropics.A A new survey could be expected to add valuable information.A Many developing states have such serious jobs of force, military disbursement, and illness, that we can barely anticipate the militants at that place to pass much of their attempt in the necessary undertaking of unifying the universe to press the atomic arms provinces to extinguish their weapons.A If it were shown that hoar is probably to make tropical latitudes in the event of a atomic war in the northern states, scientists and authoritiess in the Torrid Zones would cognize it would be an ecological catastrophe for themselves.A Even a autumn of temperature to 10 ° Celsius destroys a rice harvest. A I should stress that this is non a inquiry of forestalling â€Å" proliferation † .A The arms that pose the danger of atomic winter are the bing large arsenals.A It is these that need most desperately to be eliminated.A A war between Pakistan and India with the armories they are believed to hold at present, or the usage of the few arms that a â€Å" knave province † might do clandestinely, would be a regional catastrophe of the most awful magnitude ; but it would non do atomic winter. A Attempts are being started to involvement atmospheric scientists and to solicit support for a new survey. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.peace.ca/nuclearwinterrevisited.htm

Mental Health and Psychotropic Drugs Essay

In the last thirty years, the number of patients diagnosed with depression has doubled. (doubled from what? What percentage) The sharp increase in these diagnoses is due to the fact that the medical community has blurred the distinction between everyday unhappiness and clinical depression. (what percentage or numbers are you getting the 40% from? The use of Psychotropic medication in depressed patients has increased in the United States by more than 40 percent over the last decade. (you have a website but what is the website for? ) (http://find. galegroup. com. ezproxy. apollolibrary. com/ovrc/retrieve. do? subjectParam=Local) The bulk of the increase can be accounted for by the aggressive use of SSRI’s (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) in patients. It is the class of drugs that includes Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil. The question is: Are more Americans clinically depressed now than in the past, or has medical science started to treat the far more common experience of â€Å"everyday unhappiness† is this a quote from someone or from you? with medication, thereby increasing the number of drug prescriptions? A Psychoactive drug or Psychotropic substance is a chemical substance that acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it alters brain functions, resulting in perception, mood, consciousness, and behavior. These drugs may be used recreationally to purposefully alter one’s consciousness, as entheogens for ritual or spiritual purposes, as a tool for studying or augmenting the mind or therapeutically as medication. (www. Wikipedia. org ). (Is this whole paragraph a quote? If so, it needs to be centered and in quotation marks. ) For example: On January 22,2008, acclaimed Australian actor, Heath Ledger, died from an accidental overdose of six types of prescribed painkillers and sedatives. Ellen Borakone, spokesperson for the New York Medical Examiner’s office, said the cause of death was â€Å"acute intoxication by combined effects of oxycodone, hydrocodone, diazepam [Valium], temazepam [Restoril], alprazolam [Xanax] and doxylamine. Valium, Restoril and Xanax are benzodiazepines or tranquilizers/sedatives. The U. S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) launched an investigation into how Mr. Ledger acquired the prescription drugs that killed him. (Why did you use this example? The usage of this example is in a incorrect location of the essay) A year earlier, on February

Causes and Effects of Heart Failure

Causes and Effects of Heart Failure Elizabeth Makouta K. Assessment 2 Definition of Heart Failure: This is usually a progressive condition that reflects weakening of the heart by coronary atherosclerosis meaning the coronary vessels is build up with fatty clogging (Marieb 2012 p369) The body systems affected are: Kidney, Heart, Lungs, and Digestive System . Kidney’s function : is to eliminate nitrogen –containing e wastes, toxins, and drug from the body. Kidney also produce an enzyme ‘’renin’’ which help regulate blood pressure, and their hormone erythropoietin which stimulate red blood cell production in bone marrow (Marieb 2012 p. 512) Heart’s function: Is a muscular organ that pumps blood to all the tissues in the body through blood vessels, ‘weight less than a pound with the size of a person’s fist and a shape like cone-shaped’ (p 357).’’The right side pumps blood through the lungs where oxygen is picks up and carbon diox ide is unloaded. The left side of the heart receives blood containing oxygen and pump it to the rest of the body’’ (Marieb 2012 p 360). Lungs Function: Human body contain two lungs. ‘Lungs are large organs that occupy thoracic cavity except the heart in the central area. The left lung has two robes and the right lung has three robes’ (Marieb 2012 p.441). The lungs bring in oxygen to the body which is the air that we breathed for energy and remove carbon dioxide from the body which is the gas that comes out as waste products (American Thoracic Society 2014). . Digestive System: Digestive system starts from the mouth and ends up in the anus. The function of digestive system is to break down foods in to a simplest form for the absorption of the body as nourishment for cells and energy for the body usage (Marieb 2012 p.464). Signs and Symptoms Shortness of breath (dyspnoea) Fatigue and weakness Swelling (oedema) in your legs, ankles and feet Rapid or irregular heartbeat Reduced ability to exercise Persistent cough or wheezing (Nocturia) increased need to urinate at night Heart Pumps Faster Swelling of your abdomen (ascites) Sudden weight gain Lack of appetite and nausea Difficulty concentrating or decreased alertness Heart Grows Larger Elevated blood pressure Chest pain, if your heart failure is caused by a heart attack (Mayo Clinic 2014) Shortness of Breath : meaning there is not enough air getting into the body system why because of lack of oxygen as the heart is not able to pump enough blood (Mayo Clinic 2014 Fatigue and weakness : As the heart failed or become weak other parts of the body are affected including legs and arms making difficult do walk or climb the stairs because there is not sufficient blood getting to the legs and arms (University of California San Francisco 2014) Swelling: For kidney to function very well it needs its normal blood supply. Renin restores normal blood pressure and inc rease filtration of water and salt for filtration process to be normal (Marieb 2012 p. 512). But when blood flow to the kidney is limited then renin will also retain salt and water which will leads to fluid build-up in the body (feet, ankles and legs), ( University of California San Francisco 2014)

Where Im writting from by Dereck Owens Assignment

Where Im writting from by Dereck Owens - Assignment Example Owens description of Lake Ronkonkoma initiates from the detail he goes into regarding the formulation of the lake, which was mainly from a mile high glacier called the Wisconsinan that bulldozed its way and reached Brookhaven after passing through Canada and New England. Warmer climates caused glaciers such as these to melt and retreat leaving behind detritus that geologists now call Ronkonkoma Terminal Moraine. This was how Lake Ronkonkoma, the freshwater lake came into being. Furthermore Owen describes Lake Ronkonkoma today as a working and middle class suburb, indistinguishable from a hundred other suburbs on the island; most of which spill into each other so that their boundaries seem visually intertwined due to no prominent sense of ‘village limits’. Therefore ones sense of boundaries comes not from any visual sense but from proximity to highways and strip malls. The Long Island Expressway that is located five blocks away from Owens house and he describes it as comp rising of a service road that incorporates 24/7 traffic with its extended HOV lanes so as to accommodate the rapidly growing and close to overflowing ‘high occupancy vehicles’. The detail with which Owen describes the Long Island Expressway is by looking at the HOV Lanes from the Ronkonkoma Avenue overpass located about 45 miles from Manhattan.

Character Analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Character Analysis - Assignment Example Amir has a great friend Hassan and a wealthy father. He greatly adores his father. In his first year of friendship with Hassan, he is joyful about the friendship and values Hassan very much. However, things begin to change and jealousy, cruelty and the power struggle are witnessed. Amir’s mother died while giving birth to him (Hosseini 12). He therefore lives with his father who means everything to him. He comes out as someone who has a great lack in his life because of the death of his mother. He also feels somehow responsible for the death of his mother. As a tribute to her dead mother, he throws himself into writing and poetry. Things start changing for the worse when Amir starts believing that his father also holds him responsible for the death of her mother. Amir starts getting jealous with Hassan because of the attention that Hassan is receiving from his father, Baba. Amir admires Baba very much, but Baba does not seem to have time for him. Lack of ‘manliness’ seem to be the reason for the behavior and attitude of Baba towards Amir. Baba cannot understand how his son cannot stand up for himself. All the tension finally comes to breaking point when Amir wins a Kite –fighting tournament and Baba finally shows him some love (Clapsaddle 3). This does not however end the jealousy and cruelty he bears towards Hassan because of the affection Hassan gets from Baba. Amir shows his disapproval of Hassan by not helping him when he is raped by Assef. He goes ahead to accuse Hassan of theft and this leads to Hassan being thrown out of Baba’s house. When Amir and Baba arrive in the USA, he no longer views his father as legendary father. To him he is now just a normal father. America allows the young man to forget the betrayals and power struggles he had with Hassan in Afghanistan. Amir now starts to take care of his father. He goes ahead to meet a Saroya who he

Personal Statement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Personal Statement - Essay Example I have enjoyed archaeology since I was a small child, pouring through a substantial volume of books and published articles about general archaeology and Egyptology. Reputable and well-known historians and experts in antiquity have given me the fundamental self-taught education in the field that only served to inspire even more zealous interest in this area of study and career. Currently, I am studying at Kaplan International College in areas of generalized education. However, I was recently accepted at Westminster University to study law on the advice of my caregivers. Upon careful examination and assessment of their influence, I realize that my true passion is archaeology and aspire to reject their intentions to pursue an area of interest of which I am dedicated and highly motivated. Archaeology gives us a framework to identify with ourselves in the modern world by comparing historical record and lifestyle with contemporary culture. My enthusiasm for this area of study is unparallel ed and I can think of no more appropriate field that is perfectly constructed for my ambitions and level of interest.

Identity Theft Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Identity Theft - Assignment Example Such developments have made communication a second task, where a large amount of data and information can be collected and used for a number of purposes easily. However, these developments can be seen as positive for human beings, but these can also be seen as a negative phenomenon. It is usually called as the â€Å"double edged sword†, where it has both bright and dark sides. Though computer and information technology has proved to be much useful for communication and business development, but it has also created new ways for doing illegal or criminal activities (Gordon, Hosmer, Siedsma, & Rebovich, 2003; Smith & Spafford, 2004). Up till now a large number of security threats have been emerged in the world of computing, however the identity theft is believed to be the most crucial among all of them. This paper presents an overview of identity theft. Identity theft is the most prevalent criminal activity found to be threatening to most of the people and businesses, as shown above in figure 1. But there is little empirical and experimental research is conducted over this issue, due to some important reason, such as the detection rate, demographic dimension of the crime, and the criminals; identify-ability (Allisona, Schuck, & Lersch, 2005). Identity theft is a form of cybercrime, which can be defined as, â€Å"identity theft is a misuse of a another person’s identity, such as name, social security number, driver’s license, credit card numbers, and bank account numbers† (Denning, 1999, p. 241). As the definition suggests that identity theft can be done from a number of ways, so there some different kinds of the identity related crime, but the most usual type is the credit card theft, where the credit card numbers are used in order to steal a heavy amount. There is an evidence as per a research conducted by Newman and McNally (2007) that the degree of credit card theft through the Internet has been snowballing as internet

Imperial China's Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Imperial China's Development - Essay Example This study stresses that  the History of the Chinese people’s development does not just involve the rise and fall of dynasties, but is also greatly endowed by the presence of religion which played a primary role in the society. Religion played a key role in influencing their perception of the world, and of the people around them. These religions came into existence through their founders, who subscribed to a certain set of beliefs. The three most dominant religions in China include the Confucius wisdom, Budhism and the Taoist perception. Confucius, also known as Qong Kiu was the most influential of the Chinese history. His main idea was to create a moral upright behavior. His concern was for every government to build a just society. He believed in the respect for hierarchy, in which everyone should act according to his place in the hierarchy.  This paper highlights that the Taoism religion also influenced and still influences the Chinese religions. This perception is influ enced by the belief that there is a source of and force behind everything that exists.   The three attributes; patience, humility and compassion are emphasized on. This religion greatly influenced the nature of interactions between people in China, and has been widely embraced by the Chinese.  The Buddhism religion is closely linked to Confucius wisdom. They complement each other, and one cannot exist without the other. Buddhism embraces the role of the natural environment in bringing harmony in people.

GO-GO Gadgets Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

GO-GO Gadgets - Coursework Example The company was established in the year 1976 by the legendary Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne (Apple, 2011). The company went public in the year 1976 and is presently ranked as the topmost brand in the Fortune magazine’s list of top 50 brands in 2011 (CNN Money, 2011). The iPad 2 is a multi user product that can be used by working professionals as a substitute for notebooks as well as by individuals for entertainment purposes that includes watching TV surfing the internet and performing multiple functions that are being done by the computers. The iPad 2 has advanced graphics that enables high definition graphics. It can also be used to play games view and modify photographs and pictures as well as VOIP services. In addition to the innovative product features of iPad 1, the new product would be 33 percent thinner and would be lighter by about 15 percent. The product would also have dual core A5 micro chip that would enable faster browsing and greater speeds for the device. All these features would come up with a battery life of ten hours. In addition the iPad 2 would also have two cameras that would enable video conferencing between two people and also enable capture of high definition images. The new smart cover on the device is something that is never seen before in any device with the cover being extremely compatible and would also automatically enable and disable the sleep mode by being opened and covered respectively. He cover can also be folded to make it up as a stand for the iPad while being in use. All these features largely hold the promise of making it a new revolution ushered by the company (Apple-a, 2011). The new version of the iPad draws its competitive advantage from the aspect of being compatible to high end graphics as well as from the increased speed and robustness of the product owing to the use of dual core A5 processor that would enhance its

Simon Character in Lord of the Flies Essay Example for Free

Simon Character in Lord of the Flies Essay In this extract all of the boys take part in the murder of Simon. Simon is described as ‘the beast’ during his killing. Lord of the Flies is an allegorical novel, the death of Simon also symbolises the death of spirituality. After his brutal death Golding describes ‘his check silvered and the turn of his shoulder became sculptured marble’ this almost romantic description is an emblem of Simon’s purity. The setting is a frightening one. It is night time, but not completely dark as there are ‘flashes of lightning’ this gives a hint to the reader that this chapter will not have a happy ending. Golding uses pathetic fallacy throughout the extract to build suspense and add to the atmosphere, ‘sulphurous explosion’ this is a contrasting quote compared to the beginning peaceful setting of the novel, ‘the brilliant fish flicked away’ this is evidence of the shift within the novel from good to evil. The sounds Golding describes are the sounds of fear. The extract starts with just a few drops of rain but even when these drop they make ‘Individual sounds’ this shows that even a small thing can have a big effect. Golding starts with just small sounds to help build the tension. The rain also reminds the reader rightly of world war two as Ralph says ‘you’ll have rain like when we dropped here’ which links to the atom bomb and the irony that Piggy keeps on saying ‘what would the grown-ups think?’ when they themselves are in a war. Twice the thunder is said to ‘blow’ as if it is whipping the boys like a master would whip an animal, as a means of controlling them, Golding uses the weather to alter the mood and to help build the boys up into a frenzy. The use of monosyllabic chanting, ‘kill the beast! Cut his throat! Spill his blood!’ shows a very concentrated power source which drives the boys to do what they would never image on any ordinary day. The use of exclamati on marks means the extract becomes very loud.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Types, Causes and Effects

Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Types, Causes and Effects Chapter 1: THE INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE WHAT IS INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) means chronic inflammation of all or part of your digestive tract. IBD can be classified into two, which is, ulcerative colitis and Crohns disease. IBD is very painful and debilitating, and can sometimes lead to life-threatening complications. The IBD is called an autoimmune disease because the body’s immune system attacks the digestive system. The disease is so severe that it may cause abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea, cramps and fever. This is however different from Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS). DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE (IBD) AND INLAMMATORY BOWEL SYNDROME (IBS) The difference between the IBS and the IBD is that IBD is structural, but IBS is not. If the gut is examined by x-ray, endoscopy, biopsy or surgery, structural damage to the gut can be seen. In IBD, the damage is caused by the inflammation and may require heavy duty medication, or even surgery. Whereas in IBS, the examination of the gut of a person having IBS would help detect nothing. It can only be detected by gut symptoms. These may include abdominal cramps or pain, harder or looser bowel movements than average, excess gas, diarrhea and constipation – or alternating between the two. Both of these affect people of all ages but young people are mostly affected. Females have more chances of having IBS. IBD has no gender preference but is mostly found in Jews and people from Northern Europe. IBS is a worldwide disorder, while IBD is prominent in the planet’s temperate zones. In IBD, the gut is damaged by chronic inflammation. The damage is fought by the defense mechanism of the body resulting in fever and malaise. The intestines are disrupted, they may bleed and anemia is common too. There is inability to eat during attacks, inflammation is caused which results in wasting of energy, ultimately resulting in weight loss and malnutrition. IBS cannot be identified by findings of physical examination. However, the structural damage caused by IBD is also capable of producing striking physical findings like a mass in the abdomen, or the symptoms such as that of weight loss and anemia. Other differences include the need for surgery in IBD, which is not required in IBS. IBS does not induce complications in the gut, skin, joints and eyes, but IBD does. CROHN’S DISEASE This is the type of IBD that may involve any part(s) of the gastrointestinal tract, ranging from mouth to anus. Listed below are a few characteristic features: Inflammation usually occurs in patches. The pain is usually experienced in the lower right abdomen. The colon may turn thick and might appear to be rocky. Ulcers in and along the digestive tract are very deep, sometimes extending into every layer of the bowel wall. During bowel movement, rectal bleeding is not common. Ulcerative colitis is the second type of IBD, which is taken up in the subsequent chapters. Chapter 2: ULCERATIVE COLITIS Defining Ulcerative colitis â€Å"Colitis† means the inflammation of the colon, or more largely, inflammation of the large intestine ( that comprises of colon, caecum and rectum). Ulcerative colitis is a disease of the colon, which is the largest part of the large intestine, characterized by ulcers (open sores). These ulcers are painful wounds, they may bleed and also produce mucus and pus. The mucosa (inner lining) of the intestine becomes red and swollen. The rectal area is most severely affected. If the lining of the colon is damaged, it may cause bloody diarrhea. Where Crohn’s disease can affect almost any part of the digestive tract, Ulcerative colitis only affects the large intestine. Crohn’s disease can be treated by removing the affected parts and reconnecting the healthy ones. Whereas to treat ulcerative colitis, one may have to remove the large intestine completely (called colectomy). It can occur at highly irregular intervals, at times, with symptoms extremely severe, and sometimes, no symptoms at all. Ulcerative Colitis- An autoimmune condition In autoimmunity, an organism fails to recognize its own constituent parts as â€Å"self, and thus leads to an immune response against its own tissues and cells. Such diseases are termed as autoimmune diseases. In other words, our body’s defense mechanism goes wrong and attacks its own healthy tissue. There are harmless bacteria present inside the colon, which are mistaken to be harmful by the defense mechanism, and are attacked, leading to inflammation. Classifying Ulcerative Colitis Ulcerative Proctitis This is Ulcerative colitis in its mildest form. There is inflammation only within the rectal area. The various signs and symptoms are as follows: Rectal pain Rectal bleeding There is an urge to move the bowels but inability to do so. Proctosigmoiditis This involves the lower end of the colon, that is, the sigmoid colon and the rectum. The signs and symptoms are as follows: Abdominal pain Bloody diarrhea Abdominal cramps Constant urge to go to the toilet Left sided colitis There in inflammation in the rectum, up on the left side along the sigmoid colon and the descending colon. The signs and symptoms are: Abdominal cramping on the left side Bloody diarrhea Weight loss Pancolitis (Universal colitis) This involves and affects the whole colon. The signs and symptoms are: Bloody diarrhea (there may be severe bouts) Abdominal pain Abdominal cramps Weight loss Fatigue Fulminant Colitis This is the most rare form of colitis and it can be life threatening. It affects the whole colon. Patients suffering from fulminant colitis are at a constant risk of toxic megacolon (the colon becomes swollen, or bloated, or distended) and colon rupture. The signs and symptoms are as follows: Severe diarrhea, that can lead to shock and dehydration Severe pain SYMPTOMS OF ULCERATIVE COLITIS The Gastrointestinal symptoms include: Diarrhea with blood and mucus. This implies the gradual onset of the disease which may persist for an extended period, maybe weeks. If rectal examination is conducted, blood may be found. The patients also suffer from drastic weight loss. Due to the inflammation and extreme loss of blood from the gastrointestinal tract, anaemia may occur. There may be mild abdominal pain, or painful bowel movements accompanied with painful abdominal cramping. One may even experience fatigue and loss of appetite. One may experience very mild or almost no symptoms, called â€Å"remission†, which may be followed by symptoms that are troublesome, called â€Å"flare-ups† or â€Å"relapses†. These may be triggered by stress. Flare-ups may be very troublesome, in which patients may have to empty their bowels about six times or more each day. Heartbeat may be fast or irregular, accompanied by shortness of breath and high fever. Severity of the disease Mild disease This means less than four stools each day. Blood may be present or absent. Patient may experience mild cramping and abdominal pain. The patient may feel constipated, with a continuous feeling of needing to empty the bowel, with cramping or pain and little or almost no fecal output. Moderate disease This means more than four stools each day. Patient also displays signs of anemia, fever around 100 to 102 degrees Fahrenheit. Severe Disease This means around six stools with blood each day, implying observable bowel movement, toxicity demonstrated in the form of fever, anaemia and tachycardia. Fulminant Disease This means more than or equal to ten bowel movements each day, accompanied by continuous bleeding, abdominal tenderness, toxicity, colonic dilation and blood transfusion is often required. Patients may have toxic megacolon as the inflammation extends beyond the mucosal layer. At times, the serous membrane also gets involved causing colonic perforation. If not treated, fulminant disease may lead to death. Extraintestinal Symptoms As ulcerative colitis is an autoimmune disease, patients may develop symptoms as well as complications outside the colon. These include: Ulcers in the mouth. Opthalmic: Irritated and red eyes, or inflammation o iris called iritis. Musculoskeletal: Swollen joints (arthritis). These may be large joints, or small joints of hands or feet. Or joints of the spine. Cutaneous: Inflammation of the subcutaneous tissue. Painful and ulcerating lesion of the skin. A deformity of the ends of the fingers (Clubbing). Inflammation of the bile ducts (Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis). Chapter 3: Causes of Ulcerative Colitis The causes of Ulcerative Colitis are still not known. Yet, the possible causes are listed below: GENETICS The disease can be inherited if one has a close relative suffering from the disease. Hence it can be found in the family. The regions of the genome that can be linked to this disease are the chromosome number 1, 3, 5, 6, 12, 14, 16, 19. Since none of these have been faulty continuously, it has led to a conclusion that the disease occurs due to a combination of various genes. One of the regions, for example, has been linked to ulcerative colitis is chromosome band 1p36. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Inflammation may be encouraged by diet. For example, if there is a large intake of vitamin b6 and unsaturated fat affect the development of ulcerative colitis. There are many other discovered dietary factors which may lead to the relapse or development of the disease, like meat protein and alcoholic beverages. Vitamin D deficiency is also a leading cause of the disease. Breastfeeding may also lead to the development of the disease. The role of Sulphur in Ulcerative Colitis Sulphur is found in many foods and substances like milk, eggs, cheese, mayonnaise. It is also used as a food preservative because it stabilizes protein structures. It also prevents microbial growth during fermentation of wine and beer. Bacteria that are present in the bowel convert the sulphur present in the food to hydrogen sulphide, which is called fermentation. This substance is harmful as it can cause abdominal pain and urgent and frequent bowel movements. Because of the already existing inflammation of the bowel lining, patients suffering from ulcerative colitis find it difficult to break down the gas as they produce more hydrogen sulphide than normal. This toxic substance, in high amounts, reduces the protective unction of the cells that are lining the bowel. It can also cause cell death and induce ulceration in the superficial mucosa of the intestine. Hence the cells lining the colon are harmed. IMMUNE SYSTEM Theories suggest that a virus or a bacterium also may trigger ulcerative colitis as the digestive tract may become inflamed when the immune system tries to get rid of the invading microorganism (pathogen). This inflammation is caused due to the release of white blood cells to destroy the present pathogen. This may lead to an autoimmune reaction/condition in which the body produces an immune response even during the absence of the pathogen. This happens because the body tries to eliminate pathogens which are either gut friendly, or non-existent. RISK FACTORS The factors that raise the risk of developing Ulcerative colitis are as follows: Age: Though it may affect people at any and every age, it is more commonly found in people aged 15 to 30. Genetics: If someone has a close relative with the Crohn’s disease or ulcerative colitis, they are at a high risk of development of the disease. Isotretinoin: The treatment of cystic acne is often done with the help of this medicine. It can cure other kinds of acne too, but it increases the risk of this disease. The medicine is also called Accutane. Amnesteem, Sotret and Claravis (These are the various other brand names). Appendectomy: The removal of the appendix may lead to the reduction of the risk of developing ulcerative colitis but an increased risk of Crohn’s disease. Chapter 4: DIAGNOSIS Ulcerative colitis is diagnosed only when the possible signs and symptoms of infection, Crohn’s disease, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and colon cancer have been ruled out. The following tests are carried out: BLOOD TESTS They help to check anaemia, and also help to diagnose the name of the bowel disease the patient has. STOOL SAMPLE If there are white blood cells present in the stool, it implies that the patient is suffering from an inflammatory disease, possibly ulcerative colitis. It also helps rule out other diseases, like those caused by bacteria, viruses and parasites. Clostridium difficile usually causes diarrhea but also common amongst people suffering from ulcerative colitis. Bowel infection can also be checked this way. COLONOSCOPY The entire colon can be viewed using a flexible, thin and lighted tube which has a camera attached to it. Small tissue samples are also taken (called biopsy) so that a laboratory analysis can be conducted and ulcerative colitis may be diagnosed. SIGMOIDOSCOPY This test is done if the colon is inflamed severely. A thin, lighted and flexible tube is used to examine the last portion of the colon, the sigmoid. But the drawback of this procedure is that the problems occurring higher up the colon may be missed and a full picture of the affected colon is not achieved. BARIUM ENEMA The entire large intestine can be examined using an X-Ray. A contrast solution of barium accompanied with some air is placed into the bowel with the help of an enema. Once the barium coats the entire lining of the colon, rectum and a part of the large intestine, it creates a silhouette. This is a dangerous test and hence rarely used because the pressure that is applied to inflate the colon and coat it may lead to its rupture. X-RAY An X-ray of the abdominal area can be done to rule out the possibility of toxic megacolon and perforation as these conditions may appear because of the severe symptoms. CT SCAN This scan is carried out to check the extent of inflammation of the colon. The abdomen and pelvis are scanned if complications due to ulcerative colitis are observed or an inflamed small intestine that may be because of Crohn’s disease. VIDEO CAPSULE ENDOSCOPY (VCE) In this test, a patient swallows a capsule containing a camera which takes pictures of the intestine as it travels through it and sends them to a recorder wirelessly. The pictures can then be reviewed. Chapter 5: TREATMENT The treatment of ulcerative colitis is done on the basis of the severity of the disease. It mainly consists of changes in the diet and medication. If symptoms are found to be severe and long lasting, more medicines may be required or even surgery. But medicines cannot completely the disease. They can only minimize the risk of cancer, induce remissions and maintain them and improve the quality of life. AMINOSALICYLATES These are anti- inflammatory drugs that are used to induce and maintain remission. 5-aminosalicylic acid (5- ASA) produces the anti-inflammatory action. Examples of aminosalicylates are- MESALAZINE: Also called Pentasa, Octasa and Asacol SULFASALAZINE: This belongs to a class of antibiotics and it decomposed in the intestine to release 5-ASA. Since this substance is not entirely absorbed by the intestine, it gives a topical relief. CORTICOSTEROIDS These are often used with 5-ASA drugs to induce remission of ulcerative colitis. These work by the blocking the parts where leukocyte adhesion cascade occurs to induce inflammation. These have many side effects like the puffiness on the face, called â€Å"moon face†, and manic behavior. It may also cause bipolar disorder, inducing periods of elevated mood and depression. Examples include Cortisone, Hydrocortisone, Prednisone. IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE DRUGS These inhibit the immune system. They stop cell division of white blood cells that occur as an immune response. Examples are: Mercaptopurine, Methotrexate, Azathioprine. DIET MODIFICATION Fresh fruit, carbonated drink and caffeine should be avoided by patients suffering from diarrhea and abdominal cramping. Some patients show lactose intolerance (they are not able to digest lactose) hence they can’t consume lactose. To supplement the bone loss, calcium is given to them. The gastrointestinal and auto-immune symptoms can be helped by using the Specific Carbohydrate Diet that allows only the use of monosaccharides and not the other carbohydrates. At times due to metabolic defects, Hydrogen Peroxide may build up underneath the membrane that usually protects the walls of the intestine from the bacteria that are present. To protect ourselves from these oxidants, a need to take antioxidants arises. These include vitamins A, E, C, Selenium and manganese. HERBAL MEDICINE While Kampo is a medicine that is used in Japan, Boswellia is and Ayurvedic medicine that can be used as an alternative to other drugs. Medicinal cannabis can also be used as it helps reducing abdominal discomfort and abdominal irritability caused by ulcerative colitis. HELMINTHIC THERAPY Sometimes, parasites may help in the reduction of the immune response of the intestine. Whipworm may be used for this purpose. Reduction of immune response may help in the complete elimination of ulcerative colitis. SURGERY Colectomy is required to remove all or a part of the colon when it gets infected and begins to spread the infection to other parts. It can be classified as follows: TOTAL COLECTOMY: The entire colon is removed PARTIAL COLECTOMY: The entire colon is not removed, but only a part of it is. HEMICOLECTOMY: Removal of the left or right part of the colon PROCTOCOLECTOMY: Removal of the colon as well as the rectum. Once colectomy is performed, the remaining portions of the gastrointestinal tract are reattached in order to allow the waste to be eliminated from the body.

History of Solar Advancements Essay -- History Historical Energy Sun E

History of Solar Advancements Our sun provides us with a virtually unlimited resource that we have used for centuries in a multiple of ways. We use it to keep us warm, to grow our food and generate millions if kilowatts of electricity. Everyday the sun showers the earth with more potential energy that we produce in that day or even that week. According to the Go Solar Company (1999-2003), †on an acre of land with the sun overhead is receiving more the four thousand horsepower, which is equivalent to a large railroad locomotive, and in less than three days of the same intensity will match the estimated total of all fossil fuels on the earth†. Many of the visionaries I will be talking about explored almost all the renewable energy options familiar today, and in less than 50 year they (independent and jointly) developed an impressive array of technologies for harnessing solar radiation and converting it to energy in the way of steam to power the machines of their respective eras. You will see that p rior to World War 1, they were using all of the solar thermal conversion methods now being considered, but after the War and for a better part of 50 years their work was nearly forgotten in the rush to develop fossil fuels for an â€Å"energy-hungery† world (Smith , 1995). When the term â€Å"solar energy† is mentioned the common thought is of recent technologies, or rather a young approach to energy production, this in fact is not entirely true. What is true is that since the dawning of the space age solar-conversion used for energy production has grown with leaps and bounds but this technology has been around for some time. In fact the first documented usages of solar-conversion are found in the writings of Homer (Iliad and the... ...e energy needs. As Frank Shuman declared more than 80 years ago, it is "the most rational source of power." Work Cited: History of Solar Energy. Broadcast on Sun. 16/12/00. Reported by Alexandra de Blas: Interview of John Perlin. Internet: Online Sept.16, 03. Bailey Howe lib. UVM Available: www.abc.net/ â€Å"History of Solar Power†. Go Solar Company. L.A. California. Copyright 1999-2003. Internet: Online Sept. 27, 03. Bailey Howe lib. UVM. Available: www.solarexpert.com Smith, C. History of Solar Energy: Revisiting Solar Power’s Past. Tech. Review. July 95. Internet: Online Sept. 16, 03. Bailey Howe lib. UVM. Available: www.solarenergy.com â€Å"The History of Solar Energy†.The Solar Energy Science Project. Environmental Portfolio. Penn State. 1999. Internet. Online Sept. 27, 03. Bailey Howe lib. UVM. Available: www.personal.psu.edu

The Love Song of J, Alfred Prufrock Essay -- Literary Analysis, T.S. E

The poem â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† written by T.S. Eliot is a depiction of sadness and a disillusioned narrator. While reading this poem, one senses that the narrator is disturbed and has maybe given up hope, and that he feels he is just an actor in a tedious drama At the very beginning of the poem, Eliot uses a quote from Dante’s â€Å"Inferno†, preparing the poem’s reader to expect a vision of hell. This device seems to ask the reader to accept that what they are about to be told by the poem’s narrator was not supposed to be revealed to the living world, as Dante was exposed to horrors in the Inferno that were not supposed to be revealed to the world of the living. This comparison is frightening and intriguing, and casts a shadow on the poem and its narrator before it has even begun. J. Alfred Prufrock is anxious, self-concsious, and depressed. The first half of the poem creates a sense of place. The narrator invites us to go â€Å"through certain half-deserted streets† on an evening he has just compared to an unconscious patient (4). To think of an evening as a corpselike event is disturbing, but effective in that the daytime is the time of the living, and the night time is the time of the dead. He is anxious and apprehensive, and evokes a sense of debauchery and shadows. Lines 15-22 compare the night’s fog to the actions of a typical cat, making the reader sense the mystery of a dark, foggy night in a familiar, tangible way. One might suppose that â€Å"In the room the women come and go/ Talking of Michelangelo† refers to a room in a brothel, where the seedy women for hire talk about elevated art between Johns (13). The narrator creates a tension in the image of dark deserted streets and shady activities in the dark. Then t... ...but the world of the living is too busy with the meaningless details of life to care what he has to say about it. This despair is evident in the repeated lines â€Å"That is not it at all/ That is not what I meant at all† (109). â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† is hardly a love song at all. That irony is clear in that the narrator’s voice is anxious, self-conscious, and depressed. It seems he has wasted his life or that life was wasted on him, and he regrets not being born as a creature that lives on the bottom of the sea. The very last lines of the poem, â€Å"we have lingered in the chambers of the sea By sea-girls wreathed with seaweed red and brown Till human voices wake us, and we drown.† (29-131) ask the reader to acknowledge that humanity has the capacity to imagine and create, and that it is sometimes the boredom of humanity that destroys that potential.

A Review: The Day Of The Jackal :: Free Essay Writer

A Review: The Day of the Jackal The Day of the Jackal, written by Fredrick Forsyth, is a fictional novel that displays the author's brilliance by setting a mood and connecting you with the characters. The Day of the Jackal takes place in post World War II in France. The Jackal is a professional assassin, whose name is not revealed, who is hired by a French terrorist group to kill Charles de Gualle, the President of France. This terrorist group has had several failed attacks on the President, and the Jackal is their last hope. The mood the author sets is exceptionally suspenseful. When Rodin, the leader of the terrorist group hears of the failed attacks, the reader can feel his frustration and hatred towards the French government. When Jean-Marie Bastien is vigorously preparing for the first assault on de Gualle, the reader can sense the tension in the air and the feeling of accomplishment when Bastien says, "That's it! One hundred and fifty bullets will have passed through the presidential car by the time it comes abreast of the van. By God we've got it." All this points to Fredrick Forsyth's amazing mood setting talent in this novel. The reader feels at one with the many characters as they each take part in the many small ventures that give rise to the climax. In a scene where the Jackal is purchasing a fake identification card, the reader can tell that the man making the card is an expert. Not because it was mentioned, but because the man has such a large amount of information about I.D. cards to offer. This same writing talent that displays the characters with subtle suggestion instead of giving specific details is also shown when the Jackal goes to purchase his sniper rifle. It is not mentioned earlier, but the way the armorer talks about the mechanics involved with making a gun in which the Jackal described shows that he is one of the best in the business. Forsyth takes characterization to new level with the Jackal. The reader gets to know the Jackal with a detached understanding of him. Forsyth keeps him a mysterious being with no past and, as far as the rest of the characters in the book are concerned, no present. The reader gets to know the Jackal's meticulous personality and his great care for

Animal Farm by George Orwell Essay

Animal Farm is an allegorical novella by George Orwell published in England on 17 August 1945. According to Orwell, the book reflects events leading up to and during the Stalin era before the Second World War. Orwell, a democratic socialist,[1] was a critic of Joseph Stalin and hostile to Moscow-directed Stalinism, especially after his experiences with the NKVD and the Spanish Civil War.[2] In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described Animal Farm as his novel â€Å"contre Stalin†.[3] The original title was Animal Farm: A Fairy Story, but the subtitle was dropped by U.S. publishers for its 1946 publication and subsequently all but one of the translations during Orwell’s lifetime omitted the addition. Other variations in the title include: A Satire and A Contemporary Satire.[3] Orwell suggested the title Union des rà ©publiques socialistes animales for the French translation, which recalled the French name of the Soviet Union, Union des rà ©publiques socialistes sovià ©tiques, and which abbreviates to URSA, the Latin for â€Å"bear†, a symbol of Russia.[3] Time magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005);[4] it also places at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best 20th-Century Novels. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996 and is also included in the Great Books of the Western World. The novel addresses not only the corruption of the revolution by its leaders but also how wickedness, indifference, ignorance, greed and myopia corrupt the revolution. It portrays corrupt leadership as the flaw in revolution, rather than the act of revolution itself. It also shows how potential ignorance and indifference to problems within a revolution could allow horrors to happen if a smooth transition to a people’s government is not achieved. Plot summary Snowball’s revolution Old Major, the old boar on the Manor Farm, calls the animals on the farm for a meeting, where he compares the humans to parasites and teaches  the animals a revolutionary song, ‘Beasts of England’. When Major dies two young pigs, Snowball and Napoleon, assume command and turn his dream into a philosophy. The animals revolt and drive the drunken and irresponsible Mr Jones from the farm, renaming it â€Å"Animal Farm†. They adopt Seven Commandments of Animal-ism, the most important of which is, â€Å"All animals are equal†. Snowball attempts to teach the animals reading and writing; food is plentiful, and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items, ostensibly for their personal health. Napoleon takes the pups from the farm dogs and trains them privately. When Mr Jones tries to retake the farm, the animals defeat him at what they call the â€Å"Battle of the Cowshed†. Napoleon and Snowball struggle for leadership. When Snowball announces his idea for a windmill, Napoleon has his dogs chase Snowball away and declares himself leader. Napoleon’s rule Napoleon enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs, who will run the farm. Using a young pig named Squealer as a â€Å"mouthpiece†, Napoleon announces that Snowball stole the idea for the windmill from him. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. After a violent storm, the animals find the windmill annihilated. Napoleon and Squealer convince the animals that Snowball destroyed the windmill, although the scorn of the neighbouring farmers suggests that the windmill’s walls were too thin. Once Snowball becomes a scapegoat, Napoleon begins purging the farm with his dogs, killing animals he accuses of consorting with Snowball. He and the pigs abuse their power, imposing more control while reserving privileges for themselves and rewriting history, villainising Snowball and glorifying Napoleon. Squealer justifies every statement Napoleon makes, even the pigs’ alteration of the Seven Commandments of Animalism. â€Å"No animal shall sleep in beds† is changed to â€Å"No animal shall sleep in beds with sheets† when the pigs are discovered to have been sleeping in the old  farmhouse. â€Å"No animal shall drink alcohol† is changed to â€Å"No animal shall drink alcohol to excess† when the pigs discover the farmer’s whiskey. ‘Beasts of England’ is replaced by an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man. The animals, though cold, starving and overworked, remain convinced that they are better off than they were when under Mr Jones. Squealer abuses the animals’ poor memories and invents numbers to show their improvement. Mr Frederick, one of the neighbouring farmers, swindles Napoleon by buying old wood with forged money, and then attacks the farm, using blasting powder to blow up the restored windmill. Though the animals win the battle, they do so at great cost, as many, including Boxer, are wounded. Despite his injuries, Boxer continues working harder and harder, until he collapses while working on the windmill. Napoleon sends for a van to take Boxer to the veterinary surgeon’s, explaining that better care can be given there. Benjamin the donkey, who â€Å"could read as well as any pig†,[5] notices that the van belongs to â€Å"Alfred Simmonds, Horse Slaughterer and Glue Boiler† (a knacker), and attempts to mount a rescue; but the animals’ attempts are futile. Squealer reports that the van was purchased by the hospital and the writing from the previous owner had not been repainted. He recounts a tale of Boxer’s death in the hands of the best medical care. Shortly after Boxer’s death, it is revealed that the pigs have purchased more whiskey. Humanisation Years pass, and the pigs learn to walk upright, carry whips and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are reduced to a single phrase: â€Å"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others†. Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and the humans of the area, who congratulate Napoleon on having the hardest-working but least fed animals in the country. Napoleon announces an alliance with the humans, against the labouring classes of both â€Å"worlds†. He abolishes practices and traditions related to the Revolution, and changes the name of the farm to â€Å"The Manor Farm†. The animals, overhearing the conversation, notice that the faces of the  pigs have begun changing. During a poker match, an argument breaks out between Napoleon and Mr Pilkington when they both play the Ace of Spades, and the animals realise that the faces of the pigs look like the faces of humans, and no one can tell the difference between them. Animalism â€Å"Seven Commandments† redirects here. For the Noahide code, see Seven Laws of Noah.: The seven laws listed by the Tosefta and the Talmud are[7] 1. Prohibition of Idolatry 2. Prohibition of Murder 3. Prohibition of Theft 4. Prohibition of Sexual immorality 5. Prohibition of Blasphemy 6. Prohibition of eating flesh taken from an animal while it is still alive 7. Establishment of courts of law The pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major’s ideas into an actual philosophy, which they formally name Animalism. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer indulge in the vices of humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading). Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an allusion to the Soviet government’s revising of history in order to exercise control of the people’s beliefs about themselves and their society.[6] The original commandments are: 1. Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy. 2. Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings, is a friend. 3. No animal shall wear clothes. 4. No animal shall sleep in a bed. 5. No animal shall drink alcohol. 6. No animal shall kill any other animal. 7. All animals are equal. Later, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear them of accusations of law-breaking (such as â€Å"No animal shall drink alcohol† having â€Å"to excess† appended to it and â€Å"No animal shall sleep in a bed† with â€Å"with sheets† added to it). The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes bolded: 1. No animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets. 2. No animal shall drink alcohol to excess. 3. No animal shall kill any other animal without cause. Eventually these are replaced with the maxims, â€Å"All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others†, and â€Å"Four legs good, two legs better!† as the pigs become more human. This is an ironic twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans, and by prevent animals from following the humans’ evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political dogma can be turned into malleable propaganda.[7] Characters Pigs Old Major – An aged prize Middle White boar provides the inspiration  that fuels the Rebellion in the book. He is an allegory of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin, the founders of communism, in that he draws up the principles of the revolution. His skull being put on revered public display also recalls Lenin, whose embalmed body was put on display.[8][9] Napoleon – â€Å"A large, rather fierce-looking Berkshire boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way†,[10] An allegory ofJoseph Stalin,[8] Napoleon is the main villain of Animal Farm. In the first French version of Animal Farm, Napoleon is called Cà ©sar, the French form of Caesar,[3] although another translation has him as Napolà ©on.[11] Snowball – Napoleon’s rival and original head of the farm after Jones’ overthrow. He is mainly based on Leon Trotsky,[8] but also combines elements from Vladimir Lenin.[9] Squealer – A small white fat porker who serves as Napoleon’s right hand pig and minister of propaganda, holding a position similar to that of Molotov.[8] Minimus – A poetic pig who writes the second and third national anthems of Animal Farm after the singing of â€Å"Beasts of England† is banned. The Piglets – Hinted to be the children of Napoleon (albeit not explicitly stated) and are the first generation of animals actually subjugated to his idea of animal inequality. The young pigs – Four pigs who complain about Napoleon’s takeover of the farm but are quickly silenced and later executed. Pinkeye – A minor pig who is mentioned only once; he is the pig that tastes Napoleon’s food to make sure it is not poisoned, in response to rumours about an assassination attempt on Napoleon. Humans Mr Jones – The former owner of the farm, Jones is a very heavy drinker. The animals revolt against him after he drinks so much that he does not feed or take care of them. Mr Frederick – The tough owner of Pinchfield, a well-kept neighbouring farm, who briefly enters into an â€Å"alliance† with Napoleon, represents Germany. Mr Pilkington – The easy-going but crafty owner of Foxwood, a neighbouring farm overgrown with weeds, represents Britain. Mr Whymper – A man hired by Napoleon for the public relations of Animal Farm to human society, who is eventually used to procure luxuries like alcohol for the pigs. Equines Boxer – Boxer is a loyal, kind, dedicated, and respectable horse, although quite dim-witted. Clover – Boxer’s companion, constantly caring for him; she also acts as a matriarch of sorts for the other horses and the other animals in general. Mollie – Mollie is a self-centred, self-indulgent and vain young white mare who quickly leaves for another farm after the revolution. Benjamin – Benjamin, a donkey, is one of the oldest animals. He has the worst temper, but is also one of the wisest animals on the farm, and is one of the few who can actually read. He is skeptical and pessimistic, his most-often-made statement being â€Å"Life will go on as it has always gone on – that is, badly.†[12] Other animals Muriel – A wise old goat who is friends with all of the animals on the farm. She, like Benjamin and Snowball, is one of the few animals on the farm who can read. The Puppies – Offspring of Jessie and Bluebell, taken away from them by Napoleon at birth and reared by Napoleon to be his security force. Moses – An old raven who occasionally visits the farm, regaling its denizens with tales of a wondrous place beyond the clouds called Sugarcandy Mountain, where he avers that all animals go when they die—but only if they work hard. He is interpreted as symbolising the Russian Orthodox Church, with Sugarcandy Mountain an allusion to Heaven for the animals.[13] The Sheep – They show limited understanding of the situations but nonetheless blindly support Napoleon’s ideals. The Hens – The hens are among the first to rebel against Napoleon. The Cows – Their milk is stolen by the pigs, who learn to milk them, and is stirred into the pigs’ mash every day while the other animals are denied such luxuries. The Cat – Never seen to carry out any work, the cat is absent for long periods, and is forgiven because her excuses are so convincing and she â€Å"purred so affectionately that is was impossible not to believe in her good intentions†.[14] She has no interest in the politics of the farm, and the only time she is recorded as having participated in an election, she is found to have actually â€Å"voted on both sides†.[14] Glossary of Terms Coccidiosis: a parasitic infection that causes bloody diarrhea and sudden death in animals Communism: a theory or system of social organization based on the  holding of all property in common, actual ownership being ascribed to the community as a whole or to the state; in practice, communism is often a totalitarian system of government Comrade: a fellow member of a political party; a member of the Communist party Disinter: to exhume; to unearth that which is buried Proletariat: in Marxism, the class of workers, especially industrial wage earners, who do not possess capital or property and must sell their labor to survive Propaganda: information, ideas, or rumors disseminated to help or harm a person, group, movement, institution, nation, or other entity Regime: a mode or system of rule or government; such a system when in power Socialism: a theory or system of social organization that advocates vesting the ownership and control of the means of production and distribution, of capital, land, and other assets in the community as a whole Totalitarianism: absolute control by the state or a governing branch of a highly centralized institution Tushes: small, short tusks such as those belonging to a boar. Major Themes The Soviet Union under Stalinism Animal Farm is a satire of totalitarian governments in their many guises. But Orwell composed the book for a more specific purpose: to serve as a cautionary tale about Stalinism. It was for this reason that he faced  such difficulty in getting the book published; by the time Animal Farm was ready to meet its readers, the Allies were cooperating with the Soviet Union. The allegorical characters of the novel represent specific historical figures and different factions of Imperial Russian and Soviet society. These include Karl Marx (Major), Vladimir Lenin (Major), Leon Trotsky (Snowball), Joseph Stalin (Napoleon), Adolf Hitler (Frederick), the Allies (Pilkington), the peasants (Boxer), the elite (Mollie), and the church (Moses). The resemblance of some of the novel’s events to events in Soviet history is indubitable. For example, Snowball’s and Napoleon’s power struggle is a direct allegory of Trotsky’s and Stalin’s. Frederick’s trade agreement with Napoleon, and his subsequent breaking of the agreement, represents the Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact that preceded World War II. The following Battle of the Windmill represents World War II itself. Despite his fairy-tale clarity in satirizing some historical events, Orwell is less specific about others. For example, the executions in Chapter VII conflate the Red Terror with the Great Purge. The executions themselves bear resemblance to both events, although their details connect them more to the Moscow Trials than to the Red Terror. Squealer’s subsequent announcement that the executions have ended the Rebellion connects them to the period of the Red Terror, however. Orwell leaves some ambiguity in the identities of the Rebellion and the Battle of the Cowshed. These ambiguities help the reader focus on the overall satire of Stalinism and the broader warning about the evils of totalitarian government. The Inevitability of Totalitarianism Orwell held the pessimistic belief that totalitarianism was inevitable, even in the West. According to Russell Baker, who wrote the preface to Animal Farm’s 1996 Signet Classics version, Orwell’s pessimism stemmed from his having grown up in an age of dictatorship. Witnessing Hitler’s and Stalin’s movements from afar, as well as fighting totalitarianism in the Spanish Civil War, Orwell came to believe in the rise of a new species of autocrat, worse even than the tyrants of old. This cynicism is reflected in  both of his highly successful novels, Animal Farm and 1984. Orwell emphasizes the insidiousness of totalitarianism early in the novel, when the pigs take the fresh milk and apples. The pigs justify their actions on the basis of their superiority; they are smart and need more nutrition than the other animals to fuel their brainpower. There is no scientific basis for the pigs’ claim—in fact, if anyone needs more food to fuel their labor, it is the manual laborers—but they can count on the animals’ being too ignorant to realize that. In this way, Orwell makes the point that totalitarianism need not be blatant in order to be operating. It can hide under the guise of the â€Å"greater good† as it did in the Soviet Union before the totalitarianism became obvious. Orwell uses a cyclical structure in Animal Farm, which helps advance the idea of totalitarianism’s predictability. The novel begins with Jones as autocratic tyrant and ends with Napoleon not only in Jones’s position, but in his clothes as well. Over the course of the novel, Napoleon essentially becomes Jones just as Stalin becomes an autocrat after pretending to espouse equality and freedom. Orwell cements this idea in the book’s final scene, where he writes, â€Å"Twelve voices were shouting in anger, and they were all alike. No question, now, what had happened to the faces of the pigs. The creatures outside looked from pig to man, and from man to pig, and from pig to man again; but already it was impossible to say which was which† (139). The circularity of Orwell’s story prevents the reader from imagining a better future for Animal Farm. After all, even if another Rebellion were to take place, its leaders would eventually come to emulate Napoleon. According to Baker, technology turned out to be the force freeing people from Orwell’s age of dictators. But â€Å"technology† can be just another banner under which to rally the people. While Orwell does portray technology as a source of progress in Animal Farm, he points out that it is useless unless it is in the people’s hands. Most notably, even when the windmill is finished it is used for milling corn instead of its original purpose of supplying the animals with electricity in their stalls. Intelligence and Education as Tools of Oppression From the very beginning of the novel, we become aware of education’s role in stratifying Animal Farm’s population. Following Major’s death, the pigs are the ones that take on the task of organizing and mobilizing the other animals because they are â€Å"generally recognized as being the cleverest of the animals† (35). At first, the pigs are loyal to their fellow animals and to the revolutionary cause. They translate Major’s vision of the future faithfully into the Seven Commandments of Animalism. However, it is not long before the pigs’ intelligence and education turn from tools of enlightenment to implements of oppression. The moment the pigs are faced with something material that they want—the fresh milk—they abandon their morals and use their superior intellect and knowledge to deceive the other animals. The pigs also limit the other animals’ opportunities to gain intelligence and education early on. They teach themselves to read and write from a children’s book but destroy it before the other animals can have the same chance. Indeed, most of the animals never learn more than a few letters of the alphabet. Once the pigs cement their status as the educated elite, they use their mental advantage to manipulate the other animals. For example, knowing that the other animals cannot read the Seven Commandments, they revise them whenever they like. The pigs also use their literacy to learn trades from manuals, giving them an opportunity for economic specialization and advancement. Content in the role of the intelligentsia, the pigs forgo manual labor in favor of bookkeeping and organizing. This shows that the pigs have not only the advantage of opportunity, but also the opportunity to reject whatever opportunities they like. The pigs’ intelligence and education allow them to bring the other animals into submission through the use of propaganda and revisionism. At the book’s end, we witness Napoleon’s preparations to educate a new generation of pigs and indoctrinate them into the code of oppression. Propaganda and Duplicity Working as a propagandist during World War II, Orwell experienced firsthand both the immense power and the dishonesty of propaganda. Many  types of governments make use of propaganda, not only totalitarian ones. Consider, for instance, the arguments that led many United States citizens to go along with the idea of invading Iraq after the September 11, 2001, terror attacks. Propaganda serves the positive task of uniting the people, sometimes at the cost of misleading them. Orwell takes a firm stance on the harmfulness of propaganda in Animal Farm while acknowledging its value for rallying a mistreated and disillusioned populace. In Chapter IX, Orwell demonstrates the positive value of propaganda. By this point, the animals are so downtrodden that they are desperate for something in which to believe. (Note the irony, though: it is Napoleon who has robbed them of their belief in the original version of Animalism.) The falsely optimistic statistics, the songs, and especially the Spontaneous Demonstrations give the animals something to live for. This chapter is an exception in terms of portraying propaganda in a positive light. For the majority ofAnimal Farm, Orwell skewers propaganda and exposes its nature as deception. Squealer represents a totalitarian government’s propaganda machine. Eloquent to a fault, he can make the animals believe almost anything. This fact is especially clear in Squealer’s interactions with Clover and Muriel. Each time Clover suspects that the Seven Commandments have been changed, Squealer manages to convince her that she is wrong. After the executions, Napoleon abolishes the singing of â€Å"Beasts of England† in favor of a new anthem, the lyrics of which contain a promise never to harm Animal Farm. In this propagandist manoeuvre, Napoleon replaces the revolutionary spirit of â€Å"Beasts of England† with the exact opposite, a promise not to rebel. In addition to being a source of manipulation, propaganda is an agent of fear and terror. Orwell demonstrates this quite clearly with Napoleon’s vilification of Snowball and his assurances that Snowball could attack the animals at any minute. He uses similar fear tactics regarding Frederick and Pilkington. The most egregious example of propaganda in the novel is the maxim that replaces the Seven Commandments: â€Å"All animals are equal / But some animals are more equal than others.† The idea of â€Å"more equal† is mathematically improbable and a nonsensical manipulation of language, but by  this time, the animals are too brainwashed to notice. Violence and Terror as Means of Control In Animal Farm, Orwell criticizes the ways that dictators use violence and terror to frighten their populaces into submission. Violence is one of the yokes from which the animals wish to free themselves when they prepare for the Rebellion. Not only does Jones overwork the animals and steal the products of their labor, but he can whip or slaughter them at his discretion. Once the pigs gain control of the animals, they, like Jones, discover how useful violence and terror can be. They use this knowledge to their full advantage. The foremost example of violence and terror in the novel is the pattern of public executions. The executions can be said to represent both the Red Terror and the Great Purge, but they stand more broadly for the abuse of power. For example, they are also similar to the Taliban’s public executions in Kabul’s soccer stadium in modern Afghanistan. Capital punishment for criminals is a hotly debated issue. Killing suspected criminals, as Napoleon does, is quite another issue. The executions perhaps best symbolize the Moscow Trials, which were show trials that Stalin arranged to instill fear in the Soviet people. To witnesses at the time, the accused traitors’ confessions seemed to be given freely. In fact, they were coerced. Napoleon likely coerces confessions from many of the animals that he executes. Orwell’s use of the allegory genre serves him well in the execution scene. Execution with weapons is a violent and horrifying act, but many people have become desensitized to it. Orwell’s allegorical executioners, the dogs that kill cruelly, portray the bloody and inescapably animalistic side of execution. Terror comes also in threats and propaganda. Each time the animals dare to question an aspect of Napoleon’s regime, Squealer threatens them with Jones’s return. This is doubly threatening to the animals because it would mean another battle that, if lost, would result in a return to their former lifestyle of submission. Jones’s return is such a serious threat that it quashes the animals’ curiosity without fail. The other major example of fear  tactics in the novel is the threat of Snowball and his collaborators. Napoleon is able to vilify Snowball in the latter’s absence and to make the animals believe that his return, like Jones’s, is imminent. Snowball is a worse threat than Jones, because Jones is at least safely out of Animal Farm. Snowball is â€Å"proved† to be not only lurking along Animal Farm’s borders but infiltrating the farm. Napoleon’s public investigation of Snowball’s whereabouts cements the animals’ fear of Snowball’s influence. In modern language, Snowball is pegged as the terrorist responsible for the infringements on the rights and liberties instigated by the pigs. Exploitation and the Need for Human Rights Exploitation is the issue around which the animals unite. Initially, the animals do not realize Jones is exploiting them. For this reason, Old Major’s speech is a revelation of momentous proportions. Major explains to the animals that they are enslaved and exploited and that Man is to blame. He teaches them not only what exploitation means, but also the fact that it is not inevitable. Orwell suggests that exploitation is, in fact, bound to happen when one class of society has an advantage over another. The opposite of exploitation, according to Major, is the state of being â€Å"rich and free.† Major’s ideas about animal rights symbolize the importance—and scarcity—of human rights in an oppressive regime. Gaining freedom does not necessarily lead people also to become rich, but it is better to be poor and free than poor and exploited. All the animals on Animal Farm are exploited under Napoleon’s control, save the pigs. Even the dogs, which work closely with the pigs, are exploited. The dogs face perhaps even a worse form of exploitation than the other animals, because they are made into agents of intimidation and death. Whereas Napoleon exploits the other animals’ physical strength and their ignorance, he exploits the dogs’ viciousness and turns them into villains against their parents’ wishes. Boxer’s life is a particularly sad example of exploitation because he exploits himself, believing wholeheartedly in Napoleon’s goodness. In the  end, Napoleon turns the tables and exploits Boxer, having him slaughtered for profit. By the end of the novel, we see clearly how the animals participate in their own exploitation. They are beginning to build a schoolhouse for the thirty-one young pigs Napoleon has fathered (perhaps an oblique reference to the â€Å"Thirty Tyrants† of ancient Greece). That schoolhouse will never benefit the animals that build it; rather, it will be used to educate the pigs and indoctrinate them into the cycle of exploiting others. Throughout the novel, Orwell shows us how the lack of human rights results in total helplessness. However, though it underscores the need for human rights, the novel does not suggest how to achieve them. After all, once the animals expel Jones and gain rights for themselves, the pigs take those rights away and the cycle of exploitation continues with new players. Apathy and Acceptance In the beginning of Animal Farm, the idea of freedom rouses the animals as if from a long slumber. Immediately following Major’s death, the animals begin preparing themselves for the Rebellion; just the idea of revolution is enough to motivate them, since they do not expect it to happen in their lifetimes. By the book’s end, the animals have become as apathetic as Benjamin always was. Despite the many hardships and injustices they face, the animals’ pride as well as Napoleon’s propaganda keep them invested in the â€Å"greater good† and the illusion of freedom. If Benjamin is the harbinger of apathy, Boxer is its antithesis. Strong not only in body but also in spirit, Boxer will make any sacrifice for the benefit of Animal Farm. With Boxer’s eventual betrayal by the leaders he served so unconditionally, Orwell lays bare another type of apathy—theirs. Far from truly considering Boxer a loyal comrade, the pigs treat him as apathetically as they would a mere object. Symbolically, they even make a profit by having him turned into literal objects—glue and bone meal. Boxer’s enthusiasm does not give him an advantage, but the other animals’ eventual apathy gives them a defense mechanism against the painful reality of their lives. It is no coincidence that Animal Farm’s most apathetic and cynical animal, Benjamin, is one of those that survives the  longest. Benjamin’s emotional detachment from situations, whether they are good or bad, keeps him from being disappointed. In his apathy and cynicism, Benjamin represents the stereotypical â€Å"gloomy† Russian and also the perennially pessimistic Orwell himself. Summary and analysis of Chapter I Mr. Jones, the owner of Manor Farm, stumbles drunkenly up to bed as the farm animals wait in still silence. The moment he is out of sight, they begin to bustle around, preparing themselves for the big meeting that is to take place that night. Old Major has called the meeting to discuss a strange dream he had the previous night. He is waiting for his fellow animals in the big barn.

Dance Elements Essay

Literal meaning of the word kathak is related to katha, the art of story-telling, â€Å"Katha Kahe So Kathaka Kahave†, which means â€Å"one who tells a story is a story-teller†. According to M. Monier Williams, Katha denotes conversation, story, speech, tale or fable. Katha also means to ‘ sing in praise’, ‘to say or inform something’. Thus, kathakars were originally a caste of story-tellers who were attached to temples in certain parts of Northern India. These kathakars used to go around the countryside narrating the stories of the Epics and other Legends. The modes employed were poetry, music and dance. All these three arts were closely inter-linked. The aim of kathaks was to educate the people in the knowledge of Gods and Mythological Legends. Historically kathak dates back to the Vedic period which are full of descriptions and stories which give us an insight into the mind of those who wrote or composed jthem. Kathak dance is evolved from religious and mythological concepts. In Ramayana period, we can see many glimpses of music and dance. The Ramayana tells the story of an ideal heroic prince Rama of Ayodhya and his devoted wife Sita. This ancient tale has been treasured and retold for countless generation in every Hindu house; they worshipped Rama as the seventh incarnation of Lord Vishnu. In Ramayana we find a mention of recitors who were specialised in story-telling. Lava and Kusha, the two brave sons of Rama rendered Ramayana in verses composed by Sage Valmiki. While reciting the stories, they also added the element of acting-Abhinaya. From that time nomadic bards who narrated the Ramayana were known as ‘Kushilavas’. As a matter of fact, the term kushilavas has been associated with dancers and actors. Likewise, many mythological stories were depicted through gestures, postures and abhinaya. The another story of Ramayana which tells us that how Ravana, the king of Lanka worshipped Lord Shiva with song and dance. Also the story of Ravana assaulting Rambha, one of the main Apsaras. According to Kapila Vatsyayan, in Ramayana, the Apsaras are the most important mythological characters who danced and performed both in heaven and earth. There are various other instances like the stories of the grand act of breaking Shiva’s bow in â€Å"Sita Swayamvar†, the evil plotting of Kaikayee, the Banishment of Rama to a fourteen-year exile, Sita’s kidnapping by Ravana and the war that ensued leading to Rama’s victory and Sita’s rescue. Thus, Ramayana is rich in incident and moral concept. We come across many references to perfomances of dances from the Mahabharata. In this period, worship and adoration of Bramha, Vishnu and Mahesh started with music and dance. Krishna is the ‘Sutradhara’ (around whom the entire Mahabharata developed) and he was an expert dancer. The Mahabharata depicts episodes of Krishna’s life that how he is adopted and raised by a family of cowherds. The stories of his childhood of stealing butter and milkmaids known as â€Å"MakhanChori†. His dance of his youth with Radha and Braj narees is known as â€Å"Rasa Lila†. His spiritual love dance with Gopis or Milkmaids by the bank of Yamuna river in moonlit night is known as â€Å"MahaRaas†. The story of â€Å"Kaliya Daman† which tells us how Krishna defeated the poisonous snake Kaliya and danced on his hoods. The story of â€Å"Govardhan Dharan† which tells us how krishna picked and hold the Govardhan mountain to protect the people of Vrindavan from heavy rain. Another important episode of Mahabharata is known as â€Å"Vastraharan†, in which Krishna saves the honour of the Pandava Queen Draupadi. The story goes that Dushasana, one of the Kaurava brothers attempted to humilate her by disrobing her. Draupadi called out to Krishna to save her and miraculously, as layer after layer of her saree was pulled, the number of sarees went on increasing. This episode is a popular theme in Kathak dance. Mahabharata also depicts the story of the five Pandava brothers who were unjustly deprived of their kingdom by their cousins, the kauravas, and of the great battle of Kurukshetra that established the victory of the Pandavas after much suffering and bloodshed. The Mahabharata also describes Krishna’s role as the Charioteer of Arjuna during the battle of Kurukshetra, and his conversation on the battlefield constitutes the text of the Bhagavad-Gita, the celebrated philosophical work. Thus, it is clear that by the time of Mahabharata, the arts of music and dance developed sufficient content, form, style to be taught in a systematic order. The training also seems to be elaborate with rules and regulations. Natyashastra is an encyclopedic work having 36 chapters and it deals with various topics such as the first 3 chapters deal with the origin of Natya, construction of theatre, Rangapooja, etc. , 4th and 5th chapters deal with the varieties of Dance. The 6th and 7th deal with Rasa and Bhava. From the 8th chapter of the 15th one, the different poses of Dance are being dealt with. The different aspects of Abhinaya are described in 15 to 22 and from 22nd to 28th describe the costumes elaborately. The chapters from 28th to 34 deal with music and musical instruments and the last two deal with the different characters and costumes. Natyashastra also describes the divine character and dance of the Nataraja, the dancing Lord Shiva who is considered the king of actors and dancers and also the supreme Lord of Dance. The moon which he adorns in his head is the symbol complete control of his senses. The serpents wound around his body is the proof of his complete control over vital life forces. His foot raised high over the wicked demon, a symbol of victory over the ego. This divine art form is performed by Shiva and his wife Goddess Parvati. The Dance performed Lord Shiva is known as â€Å"Tandava†, which depicts his violent nature as the destructor of the Universe. The Dance performed by Goddess Parvati is known as â€Å"Lasya†, in which the movements are gentle, graceful, erotic and it is also called the feminine version of Tandava. Therefore, according to Kapila Vatsyayan, Bharata attributes to dancing a divine origin, a literary and religious heritage both in thought and technique and aesthetic secular purpose. It has also been mentioned in Natyashastra, how to interpret the different moods of man accompanied by Bhava, Raga and Tal – all directed to create rasa or emotion in the spectators who are called â€Å"Rasikaas†. From the 7th and 8th century, â€Å"Sangeet† occupied a prominent place in the society. The art of sculptures also made great strides and most of the sculptures depicted various dance poses. Temples were the places of origin whereas the dancers or the priests danced in praise of the Lord enacting various mythological stories. Temples sprang up where the devotees gathered to pray to the Almighty God or hear stories about Him. The Temple connection is well established as can be seen in the art of â€Å"Kathavachakas† who carry on the tradition to this day in the North in the Temple boundaries and in open spaces. With the passage of time, in the medieval period, the Bhakti movement influenced all over India. The vast spiritual empire established by Vaishnavism in the North embraces life in its totality. The fine arts found a fuller expression by the 15th and the 16th centuries A. D. Literature, music, dance, painting and other fine arts flourished with the patronage extended by the temples, priests and devotees. In particular the Rasa Lilas in Braj and the neighbouring areas of Mathura in the North sustained the tradition that centered round Vishnu and his recognization as Krishna. The Bhakti movement inspired a whole new school of poetry, dance and music. Krishna and radha are the presiding deities of Vaishnavism and it was on the basis of Leelas of Krishna that precious and distinctive art heritage of Vaishnavism was built up. Mirabai, Surdas and Tulsidas for e. g. wrote powerful devotional verses on longing and separation, expressing the yearning of the human soul for union with God. They chosen the themes was the love of radha for krishna. Krishna Leela though brought out in high relief by Vaishnavism but it had its origin in the past and it can be traced easily to the periods of Mahabharata and Bhasa. In Braj, the Rasa lila’s developed as a combination of music, dance and narration that was used to enact the Krishna Legends – especially the Radha-Krishna idea and stories of Krishna’s youth with the gopis or milkmaids. Hence, the earliest compositions in kathak were based on the religious and stylised music of North India, notably the Dhrupad, Keertan, Hori, Dhamar, Pad and Bhajan. According to Mohan Khokar, Keertans are similar style to dhrupad, but they may, unlike the latter, also be sung in chorus. Keertan is a spiritual practice belonging to the path of Bhakti (devotion). Keertan more specifically means the chanting of sacred sounds or mantras. The Rasa Lila miracle plays of Braj were formerly staged to the accompaniment of keertan music only. Keertans were meant both for singing and dancing. Whereas Bhajans are strictly devotional songs and are in praise of deities such as Krishna, Shiva, Rama, Ganesha, Durga, etc. The songs are rendered in ragas, but improvised tunes are also freely used. Stories and episodes from scriptures, the teachings of saints and description of Gods have all been the subject of Bhajan. Bhajans of Mirabai, Tulsidas, Surdas, Kabir, the Ashtachhap poets and other composers are a part of kathak repertoire. Some of the Famous Bhajans of Mirabai is the following: â€Å"Baso more nanun mein nandlal, Mor mukut makrakrit kundal, arun tilak diyo bhal, Mohni murat – saavari surat, naina bane bisaal, Adhar sudha – ras murli rajat, ur baijanti maal. Chhudra ghantika kati tat sobhit, nupur sabad rasaal, Mira’ prabhu santan sukhdai, bhagat – bachhal gopal† With the advent of the Mughals, the Hindustani music underwent a drastic change. The stylised music absorbed the Mughal influence in a remarkable manner. The dancers moved from the temple courtyard to the palace dubar and this necessitated changes in presentation as Muslim kings could not enjoy the bhava of Bhakti Rasa. Kathak received encouragement at the hands of Nawabs and Rajas. Whereas formerly it was religious and devotional in mood and temperament, now it turned into a means of entertainment. The forms like Thumri, Dadra, Ghazal evolved and became a part of the Hindustani music. The word â€Å"Thumri† has been derived from a combination of two terms i. e. ‘thumak’ (or the chaal) and ‘rijhana’ (or to please). Thus, together meaning graceful stamping of the foot. Thumri is a verse that has Krishna and Radha or Krishna and Gopi’s as its central theme. It is essentially based on the divine romance portraying both aspects of separation and union. The last Nawab of Oudh, Wajid Ali Shah was an accomplished dancer and musician. He composed thumries in classical style and these were sung by the kathak dancers. His contemporaries and the court musicians like Kadarpiya, Akhtar Piya, Lallan Piya, Sikandar Piya and others contributed to its popularity. Although he was a muslim, he liked the Radha-Krishna themes. He himself presented a dance on the Rasa Lila which he called ‘Rahas’. His famous thumries are the following: â€Å"Babul mora nehar chhuto jaye, Chaar kahar mil, doliya uthave, Apna begana chhuto jaye. † Another Thumri: â€Å"Jab chod chale lucknow nagri, Tab hale ‘ali’ par kya guzri, Mahal mahal mein begum rove, Jab hum guzre duniya guzri. † According to PeterLamarche Manuel, Bindadin Maharaj is regarded as one of the most important figures in the development of Thumri as well as Kathak. The kathak Masters Bindadin and his brother Kalka Prasad composed Thumries that were suitable for kathak dancing. Some of the famous Thumri of Bindadin Maharaj is the following: â€Å"Mohe chhedo na, nand ki suno challa, Badi der bhai, ghar jane de mohe.